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Expr

Table of Contents

1. Expr
- 1.1. Concepts and terminology
- 1.2. ecli Expression Calculator Interactive Tool
2. Data types
3. Variables
4. Other operations
5. Priorities of operators
6. Functions
7. Builtins
- 7.1. Builtin modules
8. Iterators
9. Plugins

TODO: Work in progress

1. Expr

Expr is a GO package that can analyze, interpret and calculate expressions.

1.1. Concepts and terminology

Expressions are texts containing sequences of operations represented by a syntax very similar to that of most programming languages. Expr package provides these macro functions:

Scanner — Its input is a text. It scans expression text characters to produce a flow of logical symbol and related attributes, aka tokens.
Parser — Parser input is the token flow coming from the scanner. It analyses the token flow verifying if it complies with the Expr syntax. If that is the case, the Parser generates the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST). This is tree data structure that represents the components of an expression and how they are related to each other.
Calculator. Its input is the AST. It computes the parsed expression contained in the AST and returns the result or an error.

1.1.1. Variables

Expr supports variables. The result of an expression can be stored in a variable and reused in other expressions by simply specifying the name of the variable as an operand.

1.1.2. Multi-expression

An input text valid for Expr can contain more than an expression. Expressions are separated by ; (semicolon). When an input contains two or more expressions it is called multi-expression.

Expr parses and computes each expression of a multi-expression, from the left to the right. If all expressions are computed without errors, it only returns the value of the last, the right most.

The result of each expression of a multi-expression is stored in an automatic variable named last. In this way, each expression can refer to the result of the previous one without the need to assign that value to a new dedicated variable.

1.1.3. Calculation context

All objects, such as variables and functions, created during the calculation of an expression are stored in a memory block called context.

The expression context is analogous to the stack-frame of other programming languages. When a function is called, a new context is allocated to store local definitions.

Function contexts are created by cloning the calling context. More details on this topic are given later in this document.

Expr creates and keeps a inner global context where it stores imported functions, either from builtin or plugin modules. To perform calculations, the user program must provide its own context; this is the main context. All calculations take place in this context. As mentioned earlier, when a function is called, a new context is created by cloning the calling context. The created context can be called function context.

Imported functions are registered in the global context. When an expression first calls an imported function, that function is linked to the current context; this can be the main context or a function context.

Inspecting contexts

Expr provides the operator $$ that returns the current context. This can be used to inspect the content of the context, for example to check the value of a variable or to see which functions are currently linked to the context. This operator is primarily intended for debugging purposes.

An interactive tool like ecli (see ecli Expression Calculator Interactive Tool) can be used to inspect contexts interactively.

Example: inspecting contexts

>>> $$
{"variables": {"ls": "[10, 20, 30]", "it": "$([#3])", "last": "-1"}, "functions": {"about": "about():string{}", "bin": "bin(value, digits=8):integer{}", "ctrl": "ctrl(prop, value):any{}", "ctrlList": "ctrlList():list-of-strings{}", "envGet": "envGet(name):string{}", "envSet": "envSet(name, value):string{}"}}

>>> // Let use the ml command to activate multi-line output of contexts, which is more readable.
>>> ml
>>> $$
{
  "variables": {
    "last": {"variables": {"last": "-1", "ls": "[10, 20, 30]", "it": "$([#3])"}, "functions": {"ctrlList": "ctrlList():list-of-strings{}", "envGet": "envGet(name):string{}", "envSet": "envSet(name, value):string{}", "about": "about():string{}", "bin": "bin(value, digits=8):integer{}", "ctrl": "ctrl(prop, value):any{}"}},
    "ls": [10, 20, 30],
    "it": $([#3])
  },
  "functions": {
    "ctrlList": ctrlList():list-of-strings{},
    "envGet": envGet(name):string{},
    "envSet": envSet(name, value):string{},
    "about": about():string{},
    "bin": bin(value, digits=8):integer{},
    "ctrl": ctrl(prop, value):any{}
  }
}

To inspect the global context perform the $$ global operation.

1.2. `ecli` Expression Calculator Interactive Tool

Before we begin to describe the syntax of Expr, it is worth introducing ecli, former dev-expr, because it will be used to show many examples of expressions.

ecli is a simple program that can be used to evaluate expressions interactively. As its original name dev-expr suggests, it was created for testing purpose. In fact, in addition to the automatic verification test suite based on the Go test framework, ecli provides an important aid for quickly testing of new features during their development.

ecli can work as a REPL, Read-Execute-Print-Loop, or it can process expression acquired from files or standard input.

The program can be downloaded from ecli.

Here are some examples of execution.

Run ecli in REPL mode and ask for help

# Type 'exit' or Ctrl+D to quit the program.

[user]$ ./ecli
ecli -- Expressions calculator v1.12.0(build 1),2024/09/14 (celestino.amoroso@portale-stac.it)
	Based on the Expr package v0.26.0
	Type help to get the list of available commands
	See also https://git.portale-stac.it/go-pkg/expr/src/branch/main/README.adoc
>>> help
--- REPL commands:
        base -- Set the integer output base: 2, 8, 10, or 16
        exit -- Exit the program
        help -- Show command list
          ml -- Enable/Disable multi-line output
        mods -- List builtin modules
      output -- Enable/Disable printing expression results. Options 'on', 'off', 'status'
      source -- Load a file as input
         tty -- Enable/Disable ansi output (1)

--- Command line options:
    -b <builtin>       Import builtin modules.
                       <builtin> can be a list of module names or a glob-pattern.
                       Use the special value 'all' or the pattern '*' to import all modules.
    -e <expression>    Evaluate <expression> instead of standard-input
    -i                 Force REPL operation when all -e occurences have been processed
    -h, --help, help   Show this help menu
    -m, --modules      List all builtin modules
    --noout            Disable printing of expression results
    -p                 Print prefix form
    -t                 Print tree form (2)
    -v, --version      Show program version
>>>

1	Only available for single fraction values
2	Work in progress

REPL examples

[user]$ ./ecli
ecli -- Expressions calculator v1.10.0(build 14),2024/06/17 (celestino.amoroso@portale-stac.it)
	Based on the Expr package v0.19.0
	Type help to get the list of available commands
	See also https://git.portale-stac.it/go-pkg/expr/src/branch/main/README.adoc

>>> 2+3
5
>>> 2+3*(4-1.5)
9.5
>>> 0xFD + 0b1 + 0o1 (1)
255
>>> 1:2 + 2:3 (2)
7:6
>>> ml (3)
>>> 1:2 + 2:3
7
-
6
>>> 4+2 but 5:2+0.5 (4)
3
>>> 4+2; 5:2+0.5 (5)
3
>>>

1	Number bases: 0x = hexadecimal, 0o = octal, 0b = binary.
2	Fractions: numerator : denominator.
3	Activate multi-line output of fractions.
4	But operator, see `but` operator.
5	Multi-expression: the same result as the previous single expression, but this time it is obtained with two separate calculations.

2. Data types

Expr has its type system which is approximately a subset of Golang’s type system. It supports numerical, string, relational, boolean expressions, and mixed-type lists and maps.

2.1. Numbers

Expr supports three type of numbers:

Integers
Floats
Fractions

In mixed operations involving integers, fractions and floats, automatic type promotion to the larger type is performed.

2.1.1. Integers

Expr's integers are a subset of the integer set. Internally they are stored as Golang int64 values.

Example 1. Integer literal syntax

integer = [sign] digit-seq
sign = "+" | "-"
digit-seq = dec-seq | bin-seq | oct-seq | hex-seq
dec-seq = {dec-digit}
dec-digit = "0"|"1"|…|"9"
bin-seq = "0b"{bin-digit}
bin-digit = "0"|"1"
oct-seq = "0o"{oct-digit}
oct-digit = "0"|"1"|…|"7"
hex-seq = "0x"{hex-digit}
hex-digit = "0"|"1"|…|"9"|"a"|…|"z"|"A"|…|"Z"

Value range: -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807

Table 1. Arithmetic operators
Symbol	Operation	Description	Examples
`+`	Sum	Add two values⁽¹⁾	`-1 + 2` → 1
`-`	Subtraction	Subtract the right value from the left one	`3 - 1` → 2
`*`	Product	Multiply two values⁽²⁾	`-1 * 2` → -2
`/`	Integer division	Divide the left value by the right one⁽³⁾	`-11 / 2` → -5
`%`	Modulo	Remainder of the integer division	`5 % 2` → 1

⁽¹⁾ The sum operator + also supports adding an integer number to a string. In this case, the number is converted to a string and prependend or appended to the string, e.g. "x" + 48 results in "x48".

⁽²⁾ The product operator also supports multiplying a string by an integer. In this case, the number represents how many times the string has to be repeated in the result, e.g. "foo" * 3 returns "foofoofoo".

⁽³⁾ See also the float division ./ below.

2.1.2. Floats

Expr's floats are a subset of the rational number set. Note that they can’t hold the exact value of an unlimited number; floats can only approximate them. Internally floats are stored as Golang’s float64 values.

Example 2. Float literal syntax

float = [sign] dec-seq "." [dec-seq] [("e"|"E") [sign] dec-seq]
sign = "+" | "-"
dec-seq = see-integer-literal-syntax

Examples

>>> 1.0
1

>>> 0.123
0.123

>>> 4.5e+3
4500

>>> 4.5E-33
4.5e-33

>>> 4.5E-3
0.0045

>>> 4.5E10
4.5e+10

Table 2. Arithmetic operators
Symbol	Operation	Description	Examples
`+`	Sum	Add two values⁽¹⁾	`4 + 0.5` → 4.5
`-`	Subtraction	Subtract the right value from the left one	`4 - 0.5` → 3.5
`*`	Product	Multiply two values	`4 * 0.5` → 2.0
`/`	Float division	Divide the left value by the right one	`1.0 / 2` → 0.5
`./`	Forced float division	Force float division	`-1 ./ 2` → -0.5

⁽¹⁾ The sum operator + also supports adding a float number to a string. In this case, the number is converted to a string and prependend or appended to the string, e.g. "x" + 1.2 results in "x1.2".

2.1.3. Fractions

Expr also supports fractions. Fraction literals are made with two integers separated by a colon character :.

Example 3. Fraction literal syntax

fraction = [sign] (num-den-spec | float-spec)
sign = "+" | "-"
num-den-spec = digit-seq ":" digit-seq
float-spec = dec-seq "." [dec-seq] "(" repeated-digits ")"
repeated-digits = dec-seq
dec-seq = see-integer-literal-syntax
digit-seq = see-integer-literal-syntax

Examples

>>> 1 : 2
1:2

>>> 4:6 // Fractions are always reduced to their lowest terms
2:3

>>> 1:2 + 2:3
7:6

>>> 1:2 * 2:3
1:3

>>> 1:2 / 1:3
3:2

>>> 1:2 ./ 1:3 // Force decimal division
1.5

>>> -1:2
-1:2

>>> 1:-2
-1:2

>>> 1:(-2)
-1:2

>>> 1.(3) // 1.33333…
4:3

>>> 1.2() // parenthesis force float to fraction conversion
6:5

>>> float(6:5) // convert fraction to float⁽¹⁾
1.2

>>> float(1.2()) // convert fraction to float⁽¹⁾
1.2

⁽¹⁾ The float() function belongs to the builtin-in module "base". Before to use it, you needs to load the module with BUILTIN "base".

Fractions can be used in conjunction with integers and floats in expressions.

Examples

>>> 1:2 + 5
11:2

>>> 4 - 1:2
7:2

>>> 1.0 + 1:2
1.5

2.2. Strings

Strings are character sequences enclosed in single ' or double " quotes.

Examples

>>> "I’m a string"
I’m a string

>>> "123abc?!"
123abc?!

>>> "123\nabc"
123
abc

>>> "123\tabc"
123 abc

Some arithmetic operators also apply to strings.

Table 3. String operators
Symbol	Operation	Description	Examples
`+`	concatenation	Join two strings or two stringable values	`"one" + "two"` → "onetwo" `"one" + 2` → "one2"
`*`	repeat	Make n copy of a string	`"one" * 2` → "oneone"

The characters in a string can be accessed by specifying the index using the square [] operator. Positive indexes start from the left, with the first character at index 0. Negative indexes start from the right, with the last character at index -1.

Example 4. Item access syntax

item = string-expr "[" integer-expr "]"

Example 5. Sub-string syntax

sub-string = string-expr "[" integer-expr ":" integer-expr "]"

String examples

>>> s="abcd" // assign the string to variable s
"abcd"

>>> s[1] // char at position 1 (starting from 0)
"b"

>>> s[-1] // char at position -1, the rightmost one
"d"

>>> #s // number of chars
4

>>> #"abc" // number of chars
3

>>> s[1:3] // chars from position 1 to position 3 excluded
"bc"

2.3. Booleans

Boolean data type has two values only: true and false. Relational and boolean expressions result in boolean values.

Table 4. Relational operators^(*)
Symbol	Operation	Description	Examples
`==`	Equal	True if the left value is equal to the right one	`5 == 2` → false `"a" == "a"` → true
`!=`	Not Equal	True if the left value is NOT equal to the right one	`5 != 2` → true `"a" != "a"` → false
`<`	Less	True if the left value is less than the right one	`5 < 2` → false `"a" < "b"` → true
`<=`	Less or Equal	True if the left value is less than or equal to the right one	`5 <= 2` → false `"b" <= "b"` → true
`>`	Greater	True if the left value is greater than the right one	`5 > 2` → true `"a" > "b"` → false
`>=`	Greater or Equal	True if the left value is greater than or equal to the right one	`5 >= 2` → true `"b" >= "b"` → true

^(*) See also the in operator in the array, list and dictionary sections.

Table 5. Boolean operators
Symbol	Operation	Description	Examples
`NOT`	Not	True if the right value is false	`NOT true` → false `NOT (2 < 1)` → true
`AND` / `&&`	And	True if both left and right values are true	`false && true` → false `"a" < "b" AND NOT (2 < 1)` → true
`OR` / `\|\|`	Or	True if at least one of the left and right values integers is true	`false or true` → true `"a" == "b" OR (2 == 1)` → false

Currently, boolean operations are evaluated using short cut evaluation. This means that, if the left expression of the and and or operators is sufficient to establish the result of the whole operation, the right expression would not be evaluated at all.

Example

2 > (a=1) or (a=8) > 0; a (1)

1	This multi-expression returns 1 because in the first expression the left value of `or` is true and, as a consequence, its right value is not computed. Therefore the a variable only receives the integer 1.

ecli provides the ctrl() function that allows to change this behaviour.

2.4. Intervals

Expr supports intervals, which are a special kind of data type. An interval is a range open on the right of integer values between a lower and an upper bound. The lower and upper bounds can be specified in any order, i.e. the lower bound can be greater than the upper bound. In this case, the interval is considered descending.

Unlike arrays, intervals are not collections of values, but rather a compact representation of a range of values. And unlike other programming languages that separate lower and upper bounds by a colonn, Expr separates them by a double dot symbol ...

Intervals are open on the right, which means that the upper bound is not included in the interval. For example, the interval 1..5 contains the values 1, 2, 3, and 4, but not 5.

Expr's intervals also support step values, which are optionally specified by a third integer value after the upper bound, separated by another doble dot symbol ... In this case, the interval represents a range of values starting from the lower bound, up to the upper bound, with a step increment equal to the specified step value. If the step value is not specified, it defaults to 1.

The step value must be a positive integer, despite the fact that the lower bound is greater than the upper bound. If it is negative or zero, an error is returned.

Example 6. Interval literal syntax

interval = [lower-bound] ".." upper-bound [".." step]

lower-bound = integer-expr
upper-bound = integer-expr
step = positive-integer-expr

Examples

>>> 3..5
3..5..1

>>> 5..3
5..3..1

>>> ..4
0..4..1

>>> 4..
4..4..1

>>> -1..-4
-1..-4..1

>>> -1..-4..-1
Eval Error: [1:8] invalid interval specification: step must be positive

>>> r = -1..-4 // assign interval to variable r
-1..-4..1

Main usages of intervals are to generate slices of arrays and to check if a value is in an interval.

2.5. Arrays

Expr supports arrays of mixed-type values, also specified by normal expressions. Internally, Expr's arrays are Go slices.

Example 7. Array literal syntax

array = empty-array | non-empty-array
empty-array = "[]"
non-empty-array = "[" any-value {"," any-value} "]"

Examples

>>> [1,2,3] // Array of integers
[1, 2, 3]

>>> ["one", "two", "three"] // Array of strings
["one", "two", "three"]

>>> ["one", 2, false, 4.1] // Array of mixed-types
["one", 2, false, 4.1]

>>> ["one"+1, 2.0*(9-2)] // Items as results of expressions
["one1", 14]

>>> [ [1,"one"], [2,"two"]] // Array of arrays
[[1, "one"], [2, "two"]]

Table 6. Array operators
Symbol	Operation	Description	Examples
`+`	Join	Joins two arrays	`[1,2] + [3]` → [1,2,3]
`-`	Difference	Left array without elements in the right array	`[1,2,3] - [2]` → [1,3]
`>>` `+>`	Front insertion	Insert an item in front	`0 >> [1,2]` → [0,1,2]
`<<` `<+`	Back insertion	Insert an item at end	`[1,2] << 3` → [1,2,3]
`[]`	Item at index	Item at given position	`[1,2,3][1]` → 2
`in`	Item in array	True if item is in array	`2 in [1,2,3]` → true
`at`	Index of an item	Returns the index of an item in array	`2 at in [1,2,3]` → 1 `6 at [1,2,3]` → -1
`#`	Size	Number of items in a array	`#[1,2,3]` → 3

Array’s items can be accessed using the index [] operator.

Example 8. Item access syntax

item = array-expr "[" integer-expr "]"

Example 9. Sub-array (or slice of array) syntax

slice = array-expr "[" interval-expr "]"

Examples: Getting items from arrays

>>> [1,2,3][1]
2

>>> index=2; ["a", "b", "c", "d"][index]
c

>>> ["a", "b", "c", "d"][2..4]
["c", "d"]

>>> array=[1,2,3]; array[1]
2

>>> ["one","two","three"][1]
two

>>> array=["one","two","three"]; array[2-1]
two

>>> array[1]="six"; array
["one", "six", "three"]

>>> array[-1]
three

>>> array[10]
Eval Error: [1:9] index 10 out of bounds

Example: Number of elements in an array

>>> #array
3

Examples: Element insertion

>>> "first" >> array
["first", "one", "six", "three"]

>>> array << "last"
["first", "one", "six", "three", "last"]

Examples: Element in array

>>> "six" in array
true

>>> "ten" in array
false

Examples: Index of an element in array

>>> "six" at array
2

>>> "ten" at array
-1

Examples: Concatenation and filtering

>>> [1,2,3] + ["one", "two", "three"]
[1, 2, 3, "one", "two", "three"]

>>> [1,2,3,2,4] - [2,4] Note that all occurrences are removed
[1, 3]

2.6. Linked Lists

A linked list is a fundamental linear data structure in computer science. Unlike an array, where elements are stored in contiguous memory locations, the elements in a linked list are scattered in memory.

These elements are called nodes. Each node consists of two main parts:

Data: The actual value or information stored in the node.
Pointer (or Reference): A link that points to the memory address of the next node in the sequence.

The first node in the list is called the head. The last node in the list is called the tail.

Internally, Expr’s linked lists hold two pointers: one to the head of the list and one to the tail of the list. This allows for efficient insertion and deletion of items at both ends of the list. Also, linked lists keep track of their size, so the number of items in a linked list can be obtained in constant time.

Example 10. Linked list literal syntax

linked-list = "[<" [item-expr {"," item-expr}] ">]"
item-expr = any-value

>>> ls=[<1,2,3,4>]
[<1, 2, 3, 4>]

In general, arrays and linked-lists support similar operations. However, there are some differences between them. For example, arrays support efficient random access to elements, while linked-lists support efficient insertion and deletion of elements at both ends of the list.

todo: to be completed

2.7. Dictionaries

The dictionary, or dict, data-type represents sets of pairs key/value. It is also known as map or associative array.

Dictionary literals are sequences of pairs separated by comma , enclosed in curly brackets {}.

Example 11. Dict literal syntax

dict = empty-dict | non-empty-dict
empty-dict = "{}"
non-empty-dict = "{" key-scalar ":" any-value {"," key-scalar ":" any-value} "}" ⁽¹⁾

⁽¹⁾ Currently, key-scalar type can only be integer or string.

To get the value of a dictionary’s item, the key must be specified. The key is used to access the corresponding value in the dictionary. Two access methods are available: the key in square brackets and the dot notation method.

Example 12. Item access syntax by key in square brackets

item = dict-expr "[" key-expr "]"

Example 13. Item access syntax by dot notation

item = dict-expr "." key-expr

Table 7. Dict operators
Symbol	Operation	Description	Examples
`+`	Join	Joins two dicts	`{1:"one"} + {6:"six"}` → {1: "one", 6: "six"}
`[]`	Dict item value	Item value of given key	`{"one":1, "two":2}["two"]` → 2
`.`	Dict item value	Item value of given key	`{"one":1, "two":2}."two"` → 2
`in`	Key in dict	True if key is in dict	`"one" in {"one":1, "two":2}` → true
`at`	Key of given value	Returns the key of given value	`1 at {"one":1, "two":2}` → "one" `6 at {"one":1, "two":2}` → nil
`#`	Size	Number of items in a dict	`#{1:"a", 2:"b", 3:"c"}` → 3

Examples

>>> {1:"one", 2:"two"}
{1: "one", 2: "two"}

>>> {"one":1, "two": 2}
{"one": 1, "two": 2}

>>> {"sum":1+2+3, "prod":1*2*3}
{"sum": 6, "prod": 6}

>>> {"one":1, "two":2}["two"]
2

>>> {"one":1, "two":2}."two" ⁽¹⁾
2

>>> d={"one":1, "two":2}; d["six"]=6; d
{"two": 2, "one": 1, "six": 6}

>>> #d
3

⁽¹⁾ When the key type is string, the key value can be expressed without quotes in the dot notation method.

Example: d={"one":1, "two":2}; d.two returns 2.

To force the evaluation of a key expression, enclose it in parenthesis. Example:

a="b"; d={"a":"one", "b":"two"}; d.(a) returns "two".

whereas

a="b"; d={"a":"one", "b":"two"}; d.a returns "one".

3. Variables

Expr, like most programming languages, supports variables. A variable is an identifier with an assigned value. Variables are stored in contexts.

Example 14. Variable literal syntax

variable = identifier "=" any-value
identifier = alpha {alpha|dec-digit|"_"}
alpha = "a"|"b"|…"z"|"A"|"B"|…"Z"

The assign operator = returns the value assigned to the variable.

Examples

>>> a=1
1

>>> a_b=1+2
3

>>> a_b
3

>>> x = 5.2 * (9-3) // The assigned value here has the typical approximation error of the float data-type
31.200000000000003

>>> x = 1; y = 2*x
2

>>> _a=2
Parse Error: [1:2] unexpected token "_"

>>> 1=2
Eval Error: [1:2] left operand of "=" must be a variable or a collection’s item

4. Other operations

4.1. `;` operator

The semicolon operator ; is an infixed pseudo-operator. It evaluates the left expression first and then the right expression. The value of the latter is the final result.

Example 15. Multi-expression syntax

multi-expression = expression {";" expression }

An expression that contains ; is called a multi-expression and each component expression is called a sub-expression.

Technically ; is not treated as a real operator. It acts as a separator in lists of expressions.

; can be used to set some variables before the final calculation.

Example

>>> a=1; b=2; c=3; a+b+c
6

The value of each sub-expression is stored in the automatic variable last.

Example

>>> 2+3; b=last+10; last
15

4.2. `but` operator

but is an infixed operator. Its operands can be expressions of any type. It evaluates the left expression first, then the right expression. The value of the right expression is the final result.

Examples

>>> 5 but 2
2

>>> x=2*3 but x-1
5

but behavior is very similar to ;. The only difference is that ; is a pseudo-operator and can’t be used inside parenthesis ( and ). Furthermore, but, being a true operator, does not set the last variable.

4.3. Assignment operators `=` and `:=`

The assignment operator = is used to define variables or to change their value in the evaluation context (see ExprContext).

The value on the left side of = must be a variable identifier or an expression that evalutes to a variable. The value on the right side can be any expression and its value becomes the result of the assignment operation.

Examples

>>> a=15+1
16

>>> L=[1,2,3]; L[1]=5; L
[1, 5, 3]

The := operator has same effect as = for scalar values. However their behavior is different for array, linked-list and dict variables. In such cases = assignes a reference to the variable, whereas := assignes a deep copy of the value.

Examples

// Assign reference with '='
>>> L=[1,2,3]; M=L; M[0]=42; L
[42, 2, 3]
// In this case, both L and M point to the same array. Therefore, changing M also changes L.

// Assign deep copy with ':='
>>> L=[1,2,3]; M:=L; M[0]=42; L
[1, 2, 3]
// In this case, L and M are separate arrays. Therefore, changing M does not affect L.

4.4. Selector operator `? : ::`

The selector operator is very similar to the switch/case/default statement available in many programming languages.

Example 16. Selector literal syntax

selector-operator = select-expression "?" selector-case { ":" selector-case } ["::" default-multi-expression]

selector-case = [match-list] case-multi-expression
match-list = "[" item {"," items} "]"
item = expression
case-multi-expression = "{" multi-expression "}"
multi-expression = expression { ";" expression }
default-multi-expression = multi-expression

In other words, the selector operator evaluates the select-expression on the left-hand side of the ? symbol; it then compares the result obtained with the values listed in the match-list, from left to right. If the comparision finds a match with a value in a match-list, the associated case-multi-expression is evaluted, and its result will be the final result of the selection operation.

The match lists are optional. In that case, the position, from left to right, of the selector-case is used as match-list. Of course, that only works if the select-expression results in an integer.

The : symbol (colon) is the separator of the selector-cases. Note that if the value of the select-expression does not match any match-list, an error will be issued. Therefore, it is strongly recommended to provide a default (multi-)expression introduced by the :: symbol (double-colon). Also note that the default expression has no match-list.

Examples

>>> 1 ? {"a"} : {"b"}
b

>>> 10 ? {"a"} : {"b"} :: {"c"}
c

>>> 10 ? {"a"} :[true, 2+8] {"b"} :: {"c"}
b

>>> 10 ? {"a"} :[true, 2+8] {"b"} :: [10] {"c"}
Parse Error: [1:34] case list in default clause

>>> 10 ? {"a"} :[10] {x="b" but x} :: {"c"}
b

>>> 10 ? {"a"} :[10] {x="b"; x} :: {"c"}
b

>>> 11 ? {"a"} :[10] {"b"} :: {"c"}
c

>>> 10 ? {"a"} : {"b"}
Eval Error: [1:3] no case catches the value (10) of the selection expression

4.4.1. Triple special case of the selector operator

If the select-expression is a boolean expression, the selector operator can be used as a sort of if-then-else statement. In this case, the first case is evaluated if the select-expression is true, and the second case is evaluated if the select-expression is false. In this special case, the match-list of both cases must be empty.

Example

>>> (true) ? {"T"}: {"F"}
T
>>> (2 > 1) ? {"a"} : {"b"}
a
>>> (2 < 1) ? {"a"} : {"b"}
b

The triple special case of the selector operator is very useful, but it only works with boolean expressions.

Example of confusion

>>> int(true) ? {"T"}: {"F"}
F

4.5. Variable default value `??`, `?=`, and `?!`

The left operand of the first two operators, ?? and ?=, must be a variable. The right operand can be any expression. They return the value of the variable if this is defined; otherwise they return the value of the right expression.

If the left variable is defined, the right expression is not evaluated at all.

The ?? operator do not change the status of the left variable.

The ?= assigns the calculated value of the right expression to the variable on the left side.

The third one, ?!, is the alternate operator. If the variable on the left side is not defined, it returns nil. Otherwise it returns the result of the expression on the right side.

If the variable ?! is NOT defined, the expression is not evaluated at all.

Examples: effect of the ?? operator

>>> var ?? (1+2)
3

>>> var
Eval Error: undefined variable or function "var"

Examples: effect of the ?= operator

>>> var ?= (1+2)
3

>>> var
3

>>> var ?= 5
3

>>> var
3

Examples: effect of the ?! operator

>>> x ?! 5
nil

>>> x=1; x ?! 5
5

>>> y ?! (c=5); c
Eval Error: undefined variable or function "c"

These operators have a high priority, in particular higher than the operator =.

5. Priorities of operators

The table below shows all supported operators by decreasing priorities.

Table 8. Operators priorities (in this table "list" means *array* or *linked-list*)
Priority	Operator	Position	Operation	Operands and results
ITEM	`[`…`]`	Postfix	List item	list `[` integer `]` → any
ITEM	`[`…`]`	Postfix	Dict item	dict `[` any `]` → any
INC/DEC	`++`	Postfix	Iterator next item	iterator `++` → any
	`++`	Postfix	Post increment	integer-variable `++` → integer
	`++`	Prefix	Pre increment	`++` integer-variable → integer
	`--`	Postfix	Post decrement	integer-variable `--` → integer
	`--`	Prefix	Pre decrement	`--` integer-variable → integer
DEFAULT	`??`	Infix	Default value	variable `??` any-expr → any
	`?=`	Infix	Default/assign value	variable `?=` any-expr → any
	`?!`	Infix	Alternate value	variable `?!` any-expr → any
FACT	`!`	Postfix	Factorial	integer `!` → integer
SIGN	`+`, `-`	Prefix	Change-sign	(`+`\|`-`) number → number
	`#`	Prefix	Lenght-of	`#` collection → integer
	`#`	Prefix	Size-of	`#` iterator → integer
BIT SHIFT and INSERT	`<<`	Infix	Left-Shift	integer `<<` integer → integer
	`>>`	Infix	Right-Shift	integer `>>` iterator → integer
	`>>`	Infix	Head-Insert	any `>>` list → list
	`<<`	Infix	Tail-Insert	list `<<` any → list
SELECT	`? : ::`	Multi-Infix	Case-Selector	any-expr `?` case-list case-expr `:` case-list case-expr … `::` default-expr → any
	`? : ::`	Multi-Infix	Index-Selector	int-expr `?` case-expr `:` case-expr … `::` default-expr → any
	`? :`	Multi-Infix	Boolean-Selector (aka triple)	bool-expr `?` true-case-expr `:` false_case-expr → any
FRACT	`:`	Infix	Fraction	integer `:` integer → fraction
PROD	`*`	Infix	Product	number `` number* → number
	`*`	Infix	String-repeat	string `` integer* → string
	`/`	Infix	Division	number `/` number → number
	`./`	Infix	Float-division	number `./` number → float
	`/`	Infix	Split	string `/` string → list
	`/`	Infix	Split	string `/` integer → list
	`%`	Infix	Division-remainder	integer `%` integer → integer
SUM	`+`	Infix	Sum	number `+` number → number
	`+`	Infix	String-concat	(string\|number) `+` (string\|number) → string
	`+`	Infix	List-join	list `+` list → list
	`+`	Infix	Dict-join	dict `+` dict → dict
	`-`	Infix	Subtraction	number `-` number → number
	`-`	Infix	List-difference	list `-` list → list
BITWISE NOT	`~`	Prefix	Binary Not	`~` integer → integer
BITWISE AND	`&`	Infix	Binary And	integer `&` integer → integer
BITWISE OR	`\|`	Infix	Binary Or	integer `\|` integer → integer
BITWISE OR	`^`	Infix	Binary Xor	integer `^` integer → integer
RELATION	`<`	Infix	Less	comparable `<` comparable → boolean
	`<=`	Infix	less-equal	comparable `<=` comparable → boolean
	`>`	Infix	Greater	comparable `>` comparable → boolean
	`>=`	Infix	Greater-equal	comparable `>=` comparable → boolean
	`==`	Infix	Equal	comparable `==` comparable → boolean
	`!=`	Infix	Not-equal	comparable `!=` comparable → boolean
	`in`	Infix	Member-of-list	any `in` list → boolean
	`in`	Infix	Key-of-dict	any `in` dict → boolean
	`at`	Infix	Index-of-value-in-list	any `at` dict → intger
	`at`	Infix	Key-of-value-in-dict	any `at` dict → key
LOGIC NOT	`not`	Prefix	Not	`not` boolean → boolean
LOGIC AND	`and`	Infix	And	boolean `and` boolean → boolean
LOGIC AND	`&&`	Infix	And	boolean `&&` boolean → boolean
LOGIC OR	`or`	Infix	Or	boolean `or` boolean → boolean
LOGIC OR	`\|\|`	Infix	Or	boolean `\|\|` boolean → boolean
INSERT	`+>`	Infix	Prepend	any `+>` list → list
INSERT	`<+`	Infix	Append	list `<+` any → list
ASSIGN	`=`	Infix	Ref-Assignment	identifier `=` any → any
	`:=`	Infix	Copy-Assignment	identifier `=` any → any
	See also the table of special assignment operators below
BUT	`but`	Infix	But	any `but` any → any
ITER-OP	`digest`	Infix	Item-digesting	iterable `digest` expr → any
	`filter`	Infix	Item-filtering	iterable `filter` expr → iterable
	`groupby`	Infix	Dict-grouping	iterable `groupby` key-expr → dict
	`cat`	Infix	Item-concatenation	iterable `cat` iterable → iterable
	`map`	Infix	Item-mapping	iterable `map` expr → iterable
	See iterators section for examples
RANGE	`:`	Infix	Index-range	integer `:` integer → integer-pair

Table 9. Special assignment operators
Priority	Operator	Operation	Equivalent operation
ASSIGN	`+=`	Sum & Assign	var `+=` expr short for var `=` value-of-var `+` expr
	`-=`	Subtract & Assign	var `-=` expr short for var `=` value-of-var `-` expr
	`*=`	Multiply & Assign	var `=` expr* short for var `=` value-of-var `` expr*
	`/=`	Divide & Assign	var `/=` expr short for var `=` value-of-var `/` expr
	`%=`	Remainder & Assign	var `%=` expr short for var `=` value-of-var `%` expr
	`&=`	Bitwise and & Assign	var `&=` expr short for var `=` value-of-var `&` expr
	`\|=`	Bitwise or & Assign	var `\|=` expr short for var `=` value-of-var `\|` expr
	`<<=`	Left shift & Assign	var `<<=` expr short for var `=` value-of-var `<<` expr
	`>>=`	Right shift & Assign	var `>>=` expr short for var `=` value-of-var `>>` expr

6. Functions

Functions in Expr are very similar to functions available in many programming languages. Currently, Expr supports two types of function, expr-functions and go-functions.

expr-functions are defined using Expr's syntax. They can be passed as arguments to other functions and can be returned from functions. Moreover, they bind themselves to the defining context, thus becoming closures.
go-functions are regular Golang functions callable from Expr expressions. They are defined in Golang source files called modules and compiled within the Expr package. To make Golang functions available in Expr contextes, it is required to activate the builtin module or to load the plugin module in which they are defined.

6.1. Expr function definition

An expr-function is identified and referenced by its name. It can have zero or more parameter. expr-functions also support optional parameters and passing paramters by name.

Example 17. Expr’s function definition syntax

function-definition = identifier "=" "func(" [formal-param-list] ")" "{" multi-expression "}"

formal-param-list = required-param-list [ "," optional-param-list ]
required-param-list = identifier { "," identifier }
optional-param-list = optional-parm { "," optional-param }
optional-param = param-name "=" any-expr
param-name = identifier

Examples

>>> // A simple function: it takes two parameters and returns their "sum"^(*)
>>> sum = func(a, b){ a + b }
sum(a, b):any{}

^(*) Since the plus, +, operator is defined for multiple data-types, the sum() function can be used for any pair of that types.

>>> // A more complex example: recursive calculation of the n-th value of Fibonacci’s sequence
>>> fib = func(n){ n ? [0] {0}: [1] {1} :: {fib(n-1)+fib(n-2)} }
fib(n):any{}

>>> // Same function fib() but entered by splitting it over mulple text lines
>>> fib = func(n){ \
...   n ? \
...     [0] {0} : \
...     [1] {1} :: \
...     { \
...       fib(n-1) + fib(n-2) \
...     } \
... }
fib(n):any{}

>>> // Required and optional parameters
>>> measure = func(value, unit="meter"){ value + " " + unit + (value > 1) ? {"s"} :: {""}}
measure(value, unit="meter"):any{}

6.2. Golang function definition

Description of how to define Golang functions and how to bind them to Expr are topics covered in other documents.

6.3. Function calls

To call a function, either Expr or Golang type, it is necessary to specify its name and, at least, its required parameters.

Example 18. Function invocation syntax

function-call = identifier "(" actual-param-list ")"

actual-param-list = [positional-params] [named-parameters]
positional-params = any-value { "," any-value }
named-params = param-name "=" any-value { "," param-name "=" any-value }
param-name = identifier

Examples of calling the sum() functions defined above

>>> // sum of two integers
>>> sum(-6, 2)
-4
>>> // same as above but passing the parameters by name
>>> sum(a=-6, b=2)
-4
>>> // again, but swapping parameter positions (see the diff() examples below)
>>> sum(b=2, a=-6)
-4
>>> // sum of a fraction and an integer
>>> sum(3|2, 2)
7|2
>>> // sum of two strings
>>> sum("bye", "-bye")
"bye-bye"
>>> // sum of two arrays
>>> sum(["one", 1], ["two", 2])
["one", 1, "two", 2]

6.4. Parameters passed by name

When calling a function, it is possible to pass parameters by name. In that case, the order of the parameters does not matter. The only requirement is that all required parameters must be specified.

Examples of calling a function with parameters passed by name

>>> // diff(a,b) calculates a-b
>>> diff = func(a,b){a-b}
diff(a, b):any{}
>>> // simple invocation
>>> diff(10,8)
2
>>> // swapped parameters passed by name
>>> diff(b=8,a=10)
2

In function calls, parameters passed by name must be specified after all positional parameters. Otherwise, a parse error will be issued.

Examples of calling the fib() function defined above

>>> // Fibonacci sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …
>>> fib(6)
8
>>> fib(9)
34

Examples of calling the measure() functions defined above

>>> // simple call
>>> measure(10,"litre")
"10 litres"
>>> // accept the default unit
>>> measure(8)
"8 meters"
>>> // without the required parameter 'value'
>>> measure(unit="degrees"))
Eval Error: measure(): missing params — value

Examples of context binding (closures)

>>> factory = func(n=2){ func(x){x*n} }
factory(n=2):any{}
>>> double = factory()
double(x):any{}
>>> triple = factory(3)
triple(x):any{}
>>> double(5)
10
>>> triple(5)
15

6.5. Function context

Functions compute values in a local context (scope) that do not make effects on the calling context. This is the normal behavior. Using the clone modifier @ it is possibile to export local definition to the calling context. The clone modifier must be used as prefix to variable names and it is part of the name. E.g. @x is not the same as x; they are two different and unrelated variables.

Clone variables are normal local variables. The only diffence will appear when the defining function ends, just before the destruction of its local context. At that point, all local clone variables are cloned in the calling context with the same names but the @ symbol.

Example

>>> f = func() { @x = 3; x = 5 } // f() declares two different local variables: @x and x
f():any{}
>>> f() // The multi-expression (two expressions) in f() is calculated and the last result is returned
5
>>> x // The x variable was not defined in the main context before the f() invocation. It appears in the main context by cloning the @x variable, local to f(), after its termnation.
3

The clone modifier @ does not make a variable a reference variable, as the ampersand character & does in languages such as C and C++.

The clone modifier can also be used to declare the formal parameters of functions, because they are local variables too.

Example

>>> g = func(@p) {2+@p}
g(@p):any{}
>>> g(9)
11
>>> p
9

7. Builtins

Builtins are collection of function dedicated to specific domains of application. They are defined in Golang source files called modules and compiled within the Expr package. To make builtins available in Expr contextes, it is required to activate the builtin module in which they are defined.

There are currently several builtin modules. More builtin modules will be added in the future.

Available builtin modules

base: Base expression tools like isNil(), int(), etc.
fmt: String and console formatting functions
import: Functions import() and include()
iterator: Iterator helper functions
math.arith: Functions add() and mul()
os.file: Operating system file functions
string: string utilities

Builtins activation is done by using the BUILTIN operator. All modules except "base" must be explicitly enabled. The syntax is as follows.

Example 19. Builtin activation syntax

builtin-activation = BUILTIN (builtin-name | list-of-builtin-names | "*")
builtin-name = string
list-of-builtin-names = [ string { "," string } ]

The following example shows how to activate the builtin module "math.arith" and then use the function add() defined in that module.

Example: using built functions

>>> BUILTIN "math.arith"
1
>>> add(5, 3, -2)
6

To avoid the need to activate builtin modules one by one, it is possible to activate all builtin modules at once by using the BUILTIN "*" syntax.

7.1. Builtin modules

7.1.1. Module "base"

The "base" builtin module provides functions for type checking and type conversion. These functions are always available in Expr contexts without the need to activate the "base" module.

Checking functions

isBool()
isDict()
isFloat()
isFract()
isArray()
isList()
isNil()
isRational()
isString()

Conversion functions

bool()
int()
float()
string()
fract()

Other functions

char()
eval()
set()
var()

isBool()

Syntax: isBool(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is boolean, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isBool(true)
true
>>> isBool(3==2)
true
>>> isBool(3 + 2)
false

isDict()

Syntax: isDict(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is dictionary, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isDict({})
true
>>> isDict({1: "one", 2: "two"})
true
>>> isDict(1:"one")
Eval Error: denominator must be integer, got string (one)

isFloat()

Syntax: isFloat(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is float, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isFloat(4.)
true
>>> isFloat(4)
false
>>> isFloat("2.1")
false

isFract()

Syntax: isFract(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is fraction, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isFract(4.5)
false
>>> isFract(4:5)
true
>>> isFract(4)
false
>>> isFract(1.(3))
true

isArray()

Syntax: isArray(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is array, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isArray([])
true
>>> isArray([1, "2"])
true
>>> isArray(1,2)
Eval Error: isList(): too many params — expected 1, got 2

isList()

Syntax: isList(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is list, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isList([<>])
true
>>> isList([<1, "2">])
true
>>> isList(1,2)
Eval Error: isList(): too many params — expected 1, got 2

isNil()

Syntax: isNil(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is nil, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isNil(nil)
true
>>> isNil(1)
false

isRational()

Syntax: isRational(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is fraction or int, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isRational(4.5)
false
>>> isRational(4:5)
true
>>> isRational(4)
true
>>> isRational(1.(3))
true

isString()

Syntax: isString(<expr>) → bool
Returns true if the value type of <expr> is string, false otherwise.

Examples

>>> isString("ciao")
true
>>> isString(2)
false
>>> isString(2+"2")
true

bool()

Syntax: bool(<expr>) → bool
Returns a boolean value consistent with the value of the expression.

Examples

>>> bool(1)
true
>>> bool(0)
false
>>> bool("")
false
>>> bool([])
false
>>> bool([1])
true
>>> bool({})
false
>>> bool({1: "one"})
true

int()

Syntax: int(<expr>) → int
Returns an integer value consistent with the value of the expression.

Examples

>>> int(2)
2
>>> int("2")
2
>>> int("0x1")
Eval Error: strconv.Atoi: parsing "0x1": invalid syntax
>>> int(0b10)
2
>>> int(0o2)
2
>>> int(0x2)
2
>>> int(1.8)
1
>>> int(5:2)
2
>>> int([])
Eval Error: int(): can’t convert list to int
>>> int(true)
1
>>> int(false)
0

float()

Syntax: float(<expr>) → float
Returns a float value consistent with the value of the expression.

Examples

>>> float(2)
2
>>> float(2.1)
2.1
>>> float(2.3(1))
2.311111111111111
>>> float("3.14")
3.14
>>> float(3:4)
0.75
>>> float(true)
1
>>> float(false)
0

string()

Syntax: string(<expr>) → string
Returns a string value consistent with the value of the expression.

Examples

>>> string(2)
"2"
>>> string(0.8)
"0.8"
>>> string([1,2])
"[1, 2]"
>>> string({1: "one", 2: "two"})
"{1: "one", 2: "two"}"
>>> string(2:5)
"2:5"
>>> string(3==2)
"false"

fract()

Syntax: fract(<expr>) → fraction
Returns a fraction value consistent with the value of the expression.

Examples

>>> fract(2)
2:1
>>> fract(2.5)
5:2
>>> fract("2.5")
5:2
>>> fract(1.(3))
4:3
>>> fract([2])
Eval Error: fract(): can’t convert array to float
>>> fract(false)
0:1
>>> fract(true)
1:1

char()

Syntax: char(<intexpr>) → string
Returns the character whose ASCII (soon Unicode too) code point is specified by the integer expression.

Examples

>>> char(65)
"A"
>>> char(97)
"a"

eval()

Syntax: eval(<string-expr>) → any
Computes and returns the value of the string expression.

Examples

>>> eval( "2 + fract(1.(3))" )
10:3

var()

Syntax:
var(<string-expr>, <expr>) → any
var(<string-expr>) → any

This function allows you to define variables whose names can include special characters. The first form of the function allows you to define a variable with a name specified by the first parameter and assign it the value of the second parameter. The second form only returns the value of the variable with the specified name.

Examples

>>> var("$x", 3+9)
12
>>> var("$"+"x")
12
>>> var("gain%", var("$x"))
12
>>> var("gain%", var("$x")+1)
13

set

Syntax:
set(<string-expr>, <expr>) → any

This function allows you to set the value of a variable whose name can include special characters. The first parameter is the name of the variable and the second parameter is the new value to assign to that variable.

It is equivalent to the first form of the var() function, but it is more explicit about the intent of changing the value of an existing variable.

Examples

>>> set("$x", 100)
100
>>> var("$x")
100

7.1.2. Module "fmt"

to-do

print()

println()

7.1.3. Module "import"

Module activation:
BUILTIN "import"

import()

Syntax:
import(<source-file>)

Loads the multi-expression contained in the specified source and returns its value.

importAll()

7.1.4. Module "iterator"

Module activation:
BUILTIN "iterator"

run()

Syntax:
run(<iterator>, <operator>, <vars>) → any

where:

iterator	is any iterator.
operator	is a function that accepts two optional parameters: index and item.
vars	is a dictionary defining a set of variables that are used to initialize the local context of run() and that will be inherited by each call to the operator.

Instead of using index and item parameter, the operator function can refere the two automatic variables $ and $_ respectively.

run() iterates over the specified iterator and applies the specified operator to the current value of the iterator. It returns the value of the variable status it defined, otherwise nil.

In addition to the variables defined in vars, the local context includes the function abort(). The operator can call abort() to terminate iterations.

abort() accepts the optional parameter status used to change the value of of the variable of the same name and, therefore, of the value returned by run().

Examples

>>> builtin "iterator" // enable the iterator builtin module
1
>>> run($(10..15), func(){status = $_}) // returns the last iteration’s index
4
>>> run($(10..15), func(){status = $__}) // returns the last iteration’s item
14
>>> run($(1..5), func(index,item){ (index > 3) ? {abort()} :: {status = item} })
4
>>> run($(1..5), func(index,item){ (index > 2) ? {abort("aborted")} :: {status = item} })
aborted

7.1.5. Module "math.arith"

Module activation:
BUILTIN "math.arith"

Currently, the "math.arith" module provides two functions, add() and mul(), that perform addition and multiplication of an arbitrary number of parameters. More functions will be added in the future.

add()
mul()

add()

Syntax:
    add(<num-expr1>, <num-expr2>, …) → any
    add(<list-of-num-expr>]) → any
    add(<iterator-over-num-values>) → any

Returns the sum of the values of the parameters. The parameters can be of any numeric type for which the + operator is defined. The result type depends on the types of the parameters. If all parameters are of the same type, the result is of that type. If the parameters are of different types, the result is of the type that can represent all the parameter types without loss of information. For example, if the parameters are a mix of integers and floats, the result is a float. If the parameters are a mix of number types, the result has the type of the most general one.

Examples

>>> builtin "math.arith"
1
>>> add(1,2,3)
6
>>> add(1.1,2.1,3.1)
6.300000000000001
>>> add("1","2","3")
Eval Error: add(): param nr 1 (1 in 0) has wrong type string, number expected
>>> add(1:3, 2:3, 3:3)
2:1
>>> add(1, "2")
Eval Error: add(): param nr 2 (2 in 0) has wrong type string, number expected
>>> add([1,2,3])
6
>>> iterator=$([1,2,3]); add(iterator)
6
>>> add($([1,2,3]))
6

mul()

Syntax:
    mul(<num-expr1>, <num-expr2>, …) → any
    mul(<list-of-num-expr>]) → any
    mul(<iterator-over-num-values>) → any

Same as add() but returns the product of the values of the parameters.

Examples

>>> builtin "math.arith"
1
>>> mul(2,3,4)
24

7.1.6. Module "os.file"

Module activation:
BUILTIN "os.file"

The "os.file" module provides functions for working with files.

File related functions

fileOpen()
fileAppend()
fileCreate()
fileClose()
fileWriteText()
fileReadText()
fileReadTextAll()

Iterator functions for files

fileByteIterator()
fileLineIterator()

More functions will be added in the future.

fileOpen()

Syntax:
fileOpen(<file-path>) → file-handle

Returns a file handle for the specified file path. The file is opened in read-write mode. If the file does not exist, it is created.

fileAppend()

Syntax:
fileAppend(<file-path>) → any

Like fileCreate() but write operations happen at the end of the file.

fileCreate()

Syntax:
fileCreate(<file-path>) → file-handle

Creates or truncates the named <file-path>. If the file already exists, it is truncated. If the file does not exist, it is created with mode 0o666 (before umask). The associated file descriptor has mode O_RDWR. The directory containing the file must already exist.

fileClose()

to-do

fileWriteText()

to-do

fileReadText()

to-do

fileReadTextAll()

to-do

fileByteIterator()

Syntax:
fileByteIterator(handle-or-path) → iterator

Returns an iterator that produces the bytes of the specified file. The parameter can be either a file handle or a file path. If a file path is provided, the file is opened and closed automatically by the iterator.

Examples

>>> builtin "os.file"
1
>>> it=fileByteIterator("test-file.txt") map $_
$($(fileByteIterator@"test-file.txt"))
>>> $$( it )
[< 117, 110, 111, 10, 100, 117, 101, 10 >]

>>> builtin ["os.file", "string"]
2
>>> it = fileByteIterator("test-file.txt") map char($_)
$($(fileByteIterator@"test-file.txt"))
>>> $$(it))
[< "u", "n", "o", " ", "d", "u", "e", " ", >]

fileLineIterator()

Syntax:
fileLineIterator(handle-or-path) → iterator

Returns an iterator that produces the lines of the specified file. The parameter can be either a file handle or a file path. If a file path is provided, the file is opened and closed automatically by the iterator.

Examples

>>> builtin "os.file"
1
>>> it = fileLineIterator("test-file.txt") map $_
$($(fileLineIterator@"test-file.txt"))
>>> $$(it)
[ "uno", "due" ]

7.1.7. Module "string"

Module activation:
BUILTIN "string"

This module provides functions for working with strings.

Currently available functions:

strJoin()
strSub()
strSplit()
strTrim()
strStartsWith()
strEndsWith()
strUpper()
strLower()

strJoin()

Syntax:
strJoin(<separator>, <item> …) → string

Returns a string obtained by concatenating the string items (starting from the second argument), separated by the string value of the separator.

Examples

>>> strJoin(", ", "one", "two", "three")
"one, two, three"
>>> strJoin(", ", ["one", "two", "three"])
"one, two, three"

strSub()

Syntax:
strSub(<string>, <start-index>=0, <count>=-1) → string

Returns a substring of the specified string starting at the specified index and having the specified length. If the start index is negative, it is interpreted as an offset from the end of the string. If the count is negative, it means to take all characters until the end of the string.

Examples

>>> strSub("Hello, world!", 7, 5)
"world"
>>> strSub("Hello, world!", -6, 5)
"world"
>>> strSub("Hello, world!", 7)
"world!"
>>> strSub("Hello, world!", -6)
"world!"

strSplit()

Syntax:
strSplit(<string>, <separator>="", <count>=-1) → list

Returns a list of substrings obtained by splitting the specified string using the specified separator. If the separator is an empty string, the string is split into individual characters. If the count is negative, it means to split all occurrences of the separator.

Examples

>>> strSplit("one, two, three", ", ")
["one", "two", "three"]
>>> strSplit("one, two, three", ", ", 2)
["one", "two, three"]
>>> strSplit("one, two, three")
["o", "n", "e", ",", " ", "t", "w", "o", ",", " ", "t", "h", "r", "e", "e"]

strTrim()

Syntax:
strTrim(<string>) → string

Returns a string obtained by removing leading and trailing whitespace characters from the specified string.

Examples

>>> strTrim(" Hello, world! ")
"Hello, world!"

strStartsWith()

Syntax:
strStartsWith(<string>, <prefix> …) → bool

Returns a boolean indicating whether the specified string starts with any of the given prefixes.

Examples

>>> strStartsWith("Hello, world!", "Hello")
true
>>> strStartsWith("Hello, world!", "world")
false
>>> strStartsWith("Hello, world!", "Hi", "He")
true

strEndsWith()

Syntax:
strEndsWith(<string>, <suffix> …) → bool

Returns a boolean indicating whether the specified string ends with any of the given suffixes.

Examples

>>> strEndsWith("Hello, world!", "world!")
true
>>> strEndsWith("Hello, world!", "Hello")
false
>>> strEndsWith("Hello, world!", "Hi", "world!")
true

strUpper()

Syntax:
strUpper(<string>) → string

Returns a string obtained by converting all characters of the specified string to uppercase.

Examples

>>> strUpper("Hello, world!")
"HELLO, WORLD!"

strLower()

Syntax:
strLower(<string>) → string

Returns a string obtained by converting all characters of the specified string to lowercase.

Examples

>>> strLower("Hello, world!")
"hello, world!"

8. Iterators

Iterators are objects that can be used to traverse collections, such as lists and dictionaries. They are created by providing a data-source object, the collection, in a $(<data-source>) expression. Once an iterator is created, it can be used to access the elements of the collection one by one.

In general, data-sources are objects that can be iterated over. They are defined as dictionaries having the key next whose value is a function that returns the next element of the collection and updates the state of the iterator. The next function must return the special value nil when there are no more elements to iterate over.

Lists and dictionaries are implicit data-sources. The syntax for creating an iterator is as follows.

Example 20. Iterator creation syntax

iterator = "$(" data-source ")"
data-source = explicit | array_spec | linked-list-spec | dict-spec | custom-data-source

explicit = any-expr { "," any-expr }

array-spec = array ["," range-options]
array = "[" any-expr { "," any-expr } "]"
range-options = start-index [ "," end-index [ "," step ]]
start-index, end-index, step = integer-expr

dict-spec = dict ["," dict-options]
dict = "{" key-value-pair { "," key-value-pair } "}"
key-value-pair = scalar-value ":" any-expr
scalar-value = string | number | boolean
dict-options = sort-order [ "," iter-mode ]
sort-order = asc-order | desc-order | no-sort | default-order
asc-order = "asc" | "a"
desc-order = "desc" | "d"
no-sort = "none" | "nosort" | "no-sort" | "n"
default-order = "default" | ""
iter-mode = keys-iter | values-iter | items-iter | default-iter
keys-iter = "key" | "keys" | "k"
values-iter = "value" | "values" | "v"
items-iter = "item" | "items" | "i"
default-iter = "default" | ""

custom-data-source = dict having the key next whose value is a function that returns the next element of the collection and updates the state of the iterator.

Currently, default-order is the same as asc-order. In the future, it will be possible to specify a custom sorting function to define the default order.

Currently, default-iter is the same as keys-iter. In the future, it will be possible to specify a custom iteration function to define the default iteration mode.

Example: iterator over an explicit list of elements

>>> it = $("A", "B", "C")
$(#3)
>>> it++
"A"
>>> it++
"B"
>>> it++
"C"
>>> it++
Eval Error: EOF

Example: iterator over an array

>>> it = $(["one", "two", "three"])
$([#3])
>>> it++
"one"
>>> it++
"two"
>>> it++
"three"
>>> it++
Eval Error: EOF

When creating an array-type iterator expression, you can specify a range of indices and a step to iterate over a subset of the array.

TODO: implement same functionality for linked lists and dictionaries

Indexing starts at 0. If the start index is not specified, it defaults to 0. If the end index is not specified, it defaults to the index of the last element of the array. If the step is not specified, it defaults to 1.

Negative indexes are allowed. They are interpreted as offsets from the end of the array. For example, an end index of -1 means the index of the last element of the array, an end index of -2 means the index of the second to last element of the array, and so on.

Negative steps are also allowed. They are interpreted as reverse iteration. For example, a step of -1 means to iterate over the array in reverse order.

Example: iterator over an array with index, range and step

>>> it = $([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 1, 4, 2)
$([#5])
>>> it++
2
>>> it++
4
>>> it++
Eval Error: EOF

Example: iterator over an array in reverse order

>>> it = $([1, 2, 3], -1, 0, -1)
$([#3])
>>> it++
3
>>> it++
2
>>> it++
1
>>> it++
Eval Error: EOF

8.1. Operators on iterators

The above example shows the use of the ++ operator to get the next element of an iterator. The ++ operator is a postfix operator that can be used with iterators. It returns the next element of the collection and updates the state of the iterator. When there are no more elements to iterate over, it returns the error Eval Error: EOF.

After the first use of the ++ operator, the prefixed operator * operator can be used to get the current element of the collection without updating the state of the iterator. When there are no more elements to iterate over, it returns the error Eval Error: EOF. Same error is returned if the * operator is used before the first use of the ++ operator.

Example: using the * operator

>>> it = $(["one", "two", "three"])
$([#3])
>>> *it
Eval Error: EOF
>>> it++
"one"
>>> *it
"one"

8.1.1. `$$()` — Expansion special function for iterators

The $$() operator is a special function already seen applied to contexts. It can also be applied to iterators. When applied to an iterator, it visits all remaining elements of the iterator and returns them as a linked list. The state of the iterator is updated to the end of the collection. If there are no more elements to iterate over, it returns an empty list.

todo: examples

8.1.2. Named operators

Named operators are operators that are identified by a name instead of a symbol. They are implicitly defined and can be called using a special syntax. For example, the ++ has the equivalent named operator .next.

Available named operators

.next: same as ++.
.current: same as *.
.reset: resets the state of the iterator to the initial state.
.count: returns the number of elements in the iterator already visited.
.index: returns the index of the current element in the iterator. Before the first use of the ++ operator, it returns the invalid value -1.

Iterators built on custom data-sources can provide additional named operators, depending on the functionality they want to expose. For example, an iterator over a list could provide a named operator called .reverse that returns the next element of the collection in reverse order.

Example: using the named operators

>>> it = $(["one", "two", "three"])
$([#3])
>>> it.next
"one"
>>> it.current
"one"
>>> it.next
"two"
>>> it.reset
<nil>
>>> it.current
Eval Error: EOF
>>> it.next
"one"

8.2. Infixed operators on iterators

There are also some infixed operators that can be used with iterators. They are defined as follows.

cat operator
digest operator
filter operator
groupby operator
map operator

8.2.1. Automatic variables in operators

At each iteration, the following automatic variables are available for use in the expression of the digest, filter, groupby, and map operators.

$_: the current element of the iterator.
$__: the index of the current element in the iterator, starting from 0.
$#: the number of elements already visited in the iterator, starting from 0.

8.2.2. `cat` operator

Syntax:
<iterable> cat <iterable> → <iterator>

cat operator takes two iterators or iterables and returns a new iterator that produces the elements of the first iterator followed by the elements of the second iterator.

Examples

>>> it = [1,2] cat [3] cat [4,5]
$($($([#2]) cat $([#1])) cat $([#2]))
>>> $$(it)
[<1, 2, 3, 4, 5>]

8.2.3. `digest` operator

Syntax:
<iterable> digest <expr> → <any>

digest operator takes one iterator or iterable and an expression. It evaluates the expression for each element of the iterator and returns the last computed value.

Examples

>>> it = $(2,5)
$(2..5..1)
>>> sum=0; it digest (sum+=$_)
9

Some notes on the expression used with the digest operator

All assign operators have a lower precedence than the digest operator. Therefore, parentheses are required around the expression to ensure that the assignment is evaluated before the digest operator.
Since the digest operator evaluates the expression for each element of the iterator, it can be used to perform side effects, such as updating a variable.
At each iteration, the automatic variables $, $_, $#, and last are available for use in the expression. In the above example, the sum variable can be replaced by the automatic variable last to get the same result. The last variable is initialized to 0 before the first iteration and is updated to the last computed value after each iteration. Therefore, the above example can be rewritten as follows.

>>> it = $(2,5)
$(2..5..1)
>>> last=0; it digest last+$_
9

8.2.4. `filter` operator

Syntax:
<iterable> filter <expr> → <iterator>

filter applies a boolean expression to each element of the iterator and returns a new iterator that only produces the elements of the first iterator for which the expression evaluates to true.

Examples

>>> it = $(["one", "two", "three"])
$([#3])
>>> filtered_it = it filter $_ == "two"
$($([#1]))
>>> $$(filtered_it)
[<"two">]

8.2.5. `groupby` operator

Syntax:
<list-of-dicts> groupby <key> → <dict>

The left side of groupby operator is a list of dictionaries or an iterator over a list of dictionaries. It takes a key and returns a dictionary where the keys are the unique values of the specified key in the dictionaries and the values are lists of dictionaries that have that key value. In other words, it groups the dictionaries by the specified key value.

Currently, keys of group are always strings. In the future, it will be possible to specify a key function to compute the keys of the groups.

Examples

>>> [{"name": "Alice", "age": 30}, {"name": "Bob", "age": 25}, {"name": "Charlie", "age": 30}] groupby "age"

{
  "25": [
    {
      "name": "Bob",
      "age": 25
    }
  ],
  "30": [
    {
      "name": "Alice",
      "age": 30
    },
    {
      "name": "Charlie",
      "age": 30
    }
  ]
}

8.2.6. `map` operator

Syntax:
<iterable> map <expr> → <iterator>

map operator iterates over the elements of the iterator and evaluates the expressions provided on the right side for each element. Its result is a new iterator over the computed values of the that expression. The current element of the iterator is available in the expression as the variable $_.

Example: using the map operator

>>> it = $(["one", "two", "three"])
$([#3])
>>> excl_it = it map $_ + "!"
$($([#3]))
>>> $$(excl_it)
[<"one!", "two!", "three!">]

8.3. Iterator over custom data-sources

It is possible to create iterators over custom data-sources by defining a dictionary that has the key next whose value is a function that returns the next element of the collection and updates the state of the iterator. The syntax for creating an iterator over a custom data-source is as follows.

TODO: custom data-sources

9. Plugins

TODO: plugins

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